Need more medieval in your life?

Well that was an awesome semester. Thanks everyone! But don't mourn its passing too soon. The internet is a treasure trove of amazing medieval information. Here I'm just highlighting a few places you could go in particular for podcasts (online audio files) about historical topics, including medieval ones, by famous historians from all over the world.

For example, did you know that the BBC History Magazine has a free online section with audio interviews and brief talks? You can hear the latest one, or browse the archive for whatever topic takes your fancy, from the Crusades to WWII: http://www.historyextra.com/podcast-page

If you want a bit more detail, try the online lectures available [on almost any topic] from the Universities of Oxford (http://itunes.ox.ac.uk/) and Cambridge (http://www.cam.ac.uk/video/itunesu.html).

Did you know that our own Clare Monagle is also a podcasting sensation? Check her out on Radio National talking about the medieval concept of 'political theology': http://www.abc.net.au/radionational/programs/encounter/politics-and-god/3126076

And if you enjoyed the Robert Bartlett series Inside the Medieval Mind, linked earlier in semester, you could follow up by listening to this interview with him about making the series and what he wanted people to learn.

The end of semester doesn't have to be the end of medieval!

Naturally, there are also other Medieval and Renaissance units you can take here at Monash - just check out the Handbook! In semester 2, look for ATS1317 (Renaissance Europe); ATS2603 (Age of Crusades); and ATS2604 (Arthur: History and Myth). In summer 2012 there will be the exciting travel unit ATS2612 (Renaissance in Florence). And in 2013 look our for ATS3288 (Angels & Demons: Rome, the Papacy and the World); ATS2572 (Crisis and renewal in the late Renaissance); ATS2573 (Relics and legends); and ATS2579 (Witches and depravity).

See you then...
Kathleen



P.S. Comments remain open, so those of you still writing your essays, please feel free to post queries about citation, etc., below.

Test revision

So I'm just putting this here to provide a space for those who would like to make use of a communal discussion to help them think about the unit and revise for the test on Monday.

God the Geometer, Codex Vindobonensis 2554

Details, in case you missed them, are:

• The test takes place in the lecture slot on Monday 21 May.
• It is expected to take about an hour, but you can take up to two if required. 
• It will follow an essay format.
• It will take the form of a statement you must discuss with reference to primary sources.
• Select primary sources will be provided.
• A mock test is available on Blackboard
• The marking criteria are listed in the Unit Guide
  
• There is no exam in the exam period.
• There is no tutorial in week 12 after the test.
• Please submit outstanding essay hard copies to the SOPHIS essay box (Menzies W604).

It's been a blast, so thanks everyone. And good luck on Monday!
Kathleen

Unit Feedback & Sundry Announcements

Dear Students,

You will have received an email from SETU (Student Evaluation of Teaching and Units), inviting you to evaluate ATS 1316. Please do so! We really want to know what you think.

These surveys are taken extremely seriously by the University. They are used when staff members apply for promotion, or for other jobs. They are also used to make changes to the units for next year, drawing on student comments. These blogs, for example, emerged out of comments by students that they sometimes felt disconnected during first year. Hence, we have tried to build community and encourage your readings by running these blogs.

So let us know what you think of the unit. YOU ARE VERY POWERFUL!

Many thanks, Clare

P.S. You will also see a link on the right to a survey specifically asking you about the blog. We are really interested in your feedback on this learning tool in particular. This is separate from the University's SETU feedback.
Thanks!

Prato

Kathleen

P.P.S. Those interested in following up on the medieval and renaissance world by taking the summer subject in Prato and Florence should look at the ASA website here.
Also, consult the University handbook for more detail about prerequisites, etc., here. 
You may also want to contact the course coordinator, Peter Howard.

P.P.P.S. The Black Death blog follows below!

The Black Death

What were the economic foundations of the civilisations of Florence and Venice?

In the towns on the Italian Peninsula, the means by which they developed an income and industry was varied – for example, the manufacture of arms in Milan, maritime trade in Genoa and particularly Venice, banking and textiles in Florence and uniquely, the pilgrim trades in Rome/the Papal States. What is most interesting, I think, about Florence and Venice is that due to their governance as “republics”, it was not deemed wrong for the elite to engage in trade, for they were keen to be seen as regular citizens; as one Spanish Ambassador exclaimed - “they are not forbidden to engage in commerce, nor is it thought unseemly for them to do so, although being rulers and not subjects they might well be ashamed of it. On the contrary, such activity adds to their reputation and does not diminish it”.

FLORENCE:

Florence’s economy was founded on banking and textiles. The Florentines were cautious traders and this enabled the economy to remain stable, with little fluctuation. The manufacture of cloth and wool was the most prominent industry in Florence, due to the prime position of the Arno River which enabled the washing, treating and dyeing of the wool, in addition to ensuring that the finished products could be transported to Pisa to be shipped around the world. The river also allowed for the import untreated, unwashed wool from England. As Robert Hole endorses, Florence was a “manufacturing centre... raw materials were transported to the city and finished goods carried from the city, by water”. Surprisingly though, the people of Florence were very conservative in their attire, despite the beautiful products produced in their town. Due to the infertile soil of the Contado, this was the main area of employment, with over 30 000 people working in the textile industry. With the rise of the Black Death in 1348, over a third of the population were killed, resulting in a massive economic slump.

This map is of Florence in around the year 1400

Gold florin

During the Renaissance period, the Florentine florin became an international currency, chiefly due to the propagation of Medici banks around Europe. However, as Gene Brucker outlines in his book Renaissance Florence (1969), Florence employed two currencies – the silver coinage (which was minted with the head of Lorenzo de Medici on one side, as you can see here) and the gold florin. The silver currency hailed from medieval system of lire (pounds), soldi (shillings) and denari (pence); 12 denari to the soldi, 20 soldi to the lire. Gold florins were worth approximately 75 soldi or 3 and a quarter lire (in 1400). The price of a bushel of grain fluctuated between 15 soldi. (in times of plenty) to 60 s. and more in times of famine.

Silver soldi

Florence also had developed a series of guilds upon which the political system was based, yet these guilds were also the foundation of the economy, for they regulated the prices for which goods could be sold, as well as the quality of the products. Centered in the Orsanmichele, there were 7 major guilds (arti maggiori) and 14 minor guilds (arti minori). These guilds traded locally, domestically and also internationally – Florentine traders moved from the Netherlands to the Iberian Peninsula, to Constantinople and the major cities of Italy. As membership of the guilds was one of the criteria for holding public office, it is clear that in the case of Florence, the political and economic were inextricably linked.

VENICE:

Venice’s economy was established solely on trade. As Venice was founded on an archipelago, that is, a series of islands in the north east of Italy, its only naturally occurring commodities were salt and fish. It therefore developed one of the most highly sophisticated ship building industries in the world – as FC Lane outlines, during the height of the Renaissance the “Arsenal” where the ships were built covered 60 acres and employed approximately 2 000 men. Known as a “maritime empire”, it was the monopoly which Venice had over trade in the Adriatic which ensured its dominance – it had easy access to luxuries from Asia and the Middle East. When the “New World” was discovered by Christopher Columbus in 1492, so began the decline of Venetian dominance of maritime trade.

This map is one of the earliest woodcuts by Jacopo de Barbari, 1500

A Venetian product

As we saw through the study of the Crusades, Venice had interests in many different city states, and traded all over the world. During the Renaissance, Venice was a centre of trade for the entire world. Venice sold sugar and wine from the Aegean islands; spices, porcelain and pearls from the Far East; gems, mineral dyes, peacock feathers, perfumes, ceramics, alum and textiles such as silks, cottons, brocades and carets from Asia Minor; minerals, silver, copper and iron from Germany; wool, woven cloth and tin from Flanders and England; timber from the Dolomites and the Adriatic area; furs, grain and unfortunately slaves from the Black Sea region. As well as these luxury goods bought from other lands, Venice’s economy was partly made up of locally sold products such as glass, other textiles such as patterned silks, crafts and later printed books. Indeed, Venice is still famous for its Murano glass production.

Why was trade so important to these cities on the Italian Peninsula to maintain their economies?

--Rebecca

What were the economic foundations, legal and political structures of Venice in 14^th century…?

Margaret King's chapter offers great insight into the economic, legal and political structure of Venice during the period 1250 – 1350. Venice was an autonomous republic, the ruling class being the wealthy merchant class, the founders of the city. In 1297 this elite merchant class became the Venetian nobility, in what was known as the SERRATA (the closing of the Grand Council), which saw membership of The Grand Council become hereditary. The members of the Grand Council were responsible for the governance, laws, international contracts of trade and the security for all of Venice.


As Rebecca outlined, commerce in Venice thrived in the trade of iron, salt, gold, timber, wine and fish, to protect the interests of profitable trade the Grand Council, built the “Arsenal” complex, to enable the manufacture of huge galleys in which space was rented by merchants and ensured the safety of goods in international trade. Shipbuilding in itself became a very profitable and important part of the Venetian economy and employed a vast number of citizens from all classes.


King portrays Venice as a city whose citizens was prospering in a time of contentment, although not themselves being able to be part of the Grand Council,  the ruling class kept their citizens happy by providing adequately for their needs, not imposing high taxes, engaging them in war or giving them a cause for mistrust.
--Stacey

Petrarch in Posterity

Petrarch (1304-1374), born Francesco Petrarca in Arezzo to an exiled Florentine, was raised and educated in Avignon, the home of the papal court, where Petrarch, before studying law at nearby Montpellier and later in Bologne. However, this he viewed as a waste of time due to his inclination toward philosophy and literature. Living in various cities in Italy and France and travelling widely throughout Europe for his own enjoyment, Petrarch worked as a clergyman and diplomat providing him with the opportunity pursue his interests to further travel and write.

Initially, he focussed largely on the writing of poetry, and especially sonnets, publishing the collections Bucolicum Carmen, Canzoniere and Trionfi. Other individual works include Laura (a tale of his unrequited love with a married woman whom he had glimpsed at church), De Remediis Utriusque Fortunae (a ‘self-help’ book), Itinerarium (a travel guide to the Holy Land and Africa (his epic about the Second Punic War). Eventually, Petrarch shifted his focus to philosophical writings, such as De Otio Religiosorum (On Religious Leisure), De Vita Solitaria (On the Solitary Life) and De sui ipsius et multorum aliorum ignorantia (On his Own Ignorance and that of Many Others). His philosophical pieces particularly focussed on the sense of the self, a popular subject for medieval philosophers, which he discussed in Secretum, De Viris Illustribum, Ascent to Mont Ventoux and, ultimately, two collections, Epistolae Familiares (Familiar Letters) and Seniles (Of Old Age), in which his Letter to Posterity was published.

Petrarch

In this final piece, Petrarch appears to be in two minds over how he believes he will be remembered by history. On one hand, he seems to doubt that ‘[his] poor little name may travel far in space and time’ and is quite critical of his own life and achievements. Yet, by contrast, he seems to believe that his name does indeed have a chance of being preserved through his works as he addresses his autobiography not to his contemporaries or even his own family, but to future generations of scholars.

Ultimately, however, the proof of his survival in posterity lies in his legacy. As a writer, Petrarch is classed alongside Dante and Boccaccio as the three greatest and most influential writers of his time. His poems, three of which were put to music in the 19^th Century by Romantic composer Franz Liszt, inspired the form of Petrarchan sonnets and, subsequently, poets through the generations, most notably, Shakespeare. Additionally, his Letter to Posterity, as one of very few autobiographies of the pre-modern era, ranks him amongst St Augustine and Abelard. Furthermore, in the sixteenth century Pietro Bembo used Petrarch’s works as his model when constructing the ideal of the Italian language. Lastly, Petrarch is heralded as the ‘father of humanism’, a key ideal of the Renaissance, because of his philosophical writings, thus ultimately proving himself to be a pillar in one of the most crucial movements in European, indeed world history.

--Kelsey 

The Black Death and Its Impacts
The flourishing nature of Europe interrupted when it was struck with one of the largest demographic disasters in European history, the Black Death. It arose during the year of 1348 in the summer, however it was brought into Sicily in 1347 after merchant galleys returned from their trading with Byzantium and in the Crimea. The rats which carried the plague-infected fleas had gained access to Europe through these ships and thus due to trade the Black Plague had spread.

The Black plague was able to take on three forms of infection:

• Bubonic: This form was the most common form of the plague and is a bacterial infection of the lymph system, which leads to it becoming swollen and inflamed. This disease was transmitted from rats to humans via the oriental rat flea.
• Septicemic: If the bacillus enters the bloodstream, it is able to cause death within a few hours. The symptoms of this form of infection were rapid heart rate, severe headache, nausea, vomiting, and delirium.
• Pneumonic: Is a form in which the bacillus can infect a person without the flea or rat bite, as it can be breathed in through respiratory droplets in the air. This infection can inhibit the lungs and can kill within a few days

Margaret L. King identifies various social and economic impacts associated with the Black Death. Socially, the plague was devastating to the population, as it wiped out 1/3 of the populace in some areas of Europe and in others even as much as 2/3. It affected both the cities and countryside and impacted the movement and production of art and literature. Due to the causes of the plague being unknown at the time, doctors would refuse to treat patients and in Giovanni Boccaccio’s first book is a description of the plagues corrosive effects upon the human soul. He tells of how “brother abandoned brother, uncle abandoned nephew, sister left brother, and very often wife abandoned husband, and–even worse, almost unbelievable – fathers and mothers neglected to tend and care for their children”. This account is a clear demonstration of a broken society during the plague. Economically, due the death of so many in such a short time the cities had to cope with a labor supply even more greatly decimated than in the countryside due to a generally higher urban death rate. Also, there was too much supply and not enough need of goods, therefore prices of agricultural goods lowered and this impacted the peasants since they couldn’t make enough money from grain sales to afford other necessary materials.
--Michael

Do the documents relating to the Black Death reflect King’s understanding of the impact of the Black Death?

“AND THERE WERE NONE WHO WEPT FOR ANY DEATH, FOR EVERYONE EXPECTED TO DIE” – Cronica sense, eds A Lisini & F. Iacometti, Rerum italiarum scriptores

While Margaret L. H. King briefly addresses the central social impacts of the Black Death in Italy in her book “Renaissance In Italy”, there are multiple implications of the disease expressed in accounts from the period that she does not identify.

Perhaps the most potent impact of the Bubonic Plague that ravaged Europe between 1347 and 1400 was the disintegration of the social value of selflessness as individuals sought primarily to safeguard themselves against contamination and exposure to the disease. This consequence of the Plague is recognized both by King and sources derived from the period, evident through her statement that in many affected areas, “the clergy, like the citizenry, took refuge or fled” as well as accounts of a Flemish Chronicler in 1347 which stated that infected sailors were driven from Genoa “by fiery arrows and divers engines of war” when their mortal affliction became known.

Moreover, the abandonment of the Christian value of “Love thy neighbour” is a fundamental aspect of King’s understanding of the impact of the Plague, a view that corresponds, and perhaps derives from, the periodcal works of Giovanni Boccaccio composed in 1348. King exemplifies her acceptance of this implication of the plague through directly quoting Boccaccio’s assertion that “No-one cared for his neighbour”. This point is further illustrated by the Italian writer’s statement that “scarce any neighbour took heed of any other”.

The three living and the three dead

Moreover, King’s contention that the medicine of the time was insufficient to deal with the outbreak of such a potent and unprecedented pandemic, thus exacerbating its impact on society, is reflected in multiple accounts from the mid 14^th Century. For instance, her statement that the physicians and doctors of the time “knew nothing of infection, contagion, or quarantine” is demonstrated in a document prescribed by the Medical Faculty of the University of Paris in October 1348 that listed a number of recommendations to prevent contracting the Plague that revolved essentially around sleeping patterns, diet and sexual activity. The extreme measures recommended to avoid the disease illustrate both public lack of knowledge of the affliction as well as the fear that this lack of knowledge engendered.

Images of the dead and dying

However, a crucial result of the plague that King neglects to address was the hedonism and indulgence that many lived by in the hope of enjoying their life while they were still capable. Boccaccio states in his piece that many elected to “drink deep, to enjoy life, to go their way with singing and solace” thinking such an attitude to be “the best medicine for this plague”.

In addition, King fails to address the disintegration of agricultural and manual labour as a result of the Plague as farmers began to abandon the cultivation of their crops and care only for themselves. This abandonment of fields and farms is expressed in William Edendon’s, the Bishop of Winchester, account of the Plague approaching England in October 1348 in which he observes, “fruitful country places with the tillers” had become “deserts and abandoned to barrenness”. This cessation of local produce is also illustrated in William of Dene’s description of the Plague in England, composed in 1349 in which he claims that the “brethren” of the monastery of Rochester “had great difficulty in getting enough to eat”. It appears that King has failed to acknowledge this particular impact of the Plague.

Lastly, King’s interpretation of the most vital outcome of the Plague is that it precipitated the proliferation of humanism and heralded new expression in visual arts. While King retrospectively considers this to be a positive implication of the disastrous disease, evident through her statement that throughout the reconstruction of Italy after the plague, “renewed development of the intellectual movement” initiated, sources from the time take a more skeptical approach to these changes. This is perhaps most potent in Matteo Villani’s description of Florence after the plague in which he asserts that the remaining people “abandoned themselves to the sin of gluttony” and invented “strange and unaccustomed fashions and indecent manners in their garments.”

Hence, while there are some similarities in the perceived impacts of the Plague between Margaret L. H. King and sources derived from the period, there are also some central differences.

--Hugo Dean

Explain the nature of the ‘flourishing urban civilization’ that Margaret King describes in Italy prior to the Black Death.
Prior to the cataclysm of the Black Death that swept through Italy in 1384, Italian society was transformed into a stage of urban consciousness and commercial prosperity, constituting the foundations for the Renaissance civilization. During this time, the affluence of the merchant oligarchy led to significant urban renewal in both Florence and Venice, two of Italy’s leading economic centers. In this ‘Age of Republics’, Florence and Venice saw a vast increase in urban development, coinciding with the thriving economy. Cathedrals, guildhalls, government buildings, palaces, hospitals, bridges, and roads were erected, producing a new standard of living unlike anywhere else in Europe. As Italian culture was dynamically changing, a new aesthetic vision was conceived, evident in the distinct style of buildings and urban spaces created. Such new developments, including the Palazzo Pubblico, solidified Italy’s ‘civic monumentality’, as a place of vibrant culture and substantial commercial prosperity. As the towns expanded, the walls of Florence were enlarged out of necessity to accommodate this thriving urban society, serving as an indication of the prosperous economy.

While Venice’s commercial success came from marine trade, Florence’s wealth was generated from banking and wool manufacturing. The close relationship with the papacy enabled merchants to assume the position of the Pope’s tax agent, whilst also benefiting the textile industry. As papal forces defeated imperial ambitions in the Two Sicilies, Florentine merchants were able to attain raw wool necessary for manufacturing. Pioneering the wool industry, Florence was the leading manufacture of the commodity, which generated the wealth necessary for the transformation of the town. Out of this economic success, culture was correspondingly transformed, with a new emphasis placed on quality and refinement. Revolutionizing the culture, this change affected the arts, producing ‘a young generation of thinkers, artists and writers’ and new innovative ideas and forms of expression.

In addition to the urban expansion, the population had dramatically increased by 1250, as recorded in Giovanni Villani’s Chronicle, Florence had reached an estimated 90,000 residents in the town alone, with an additional 80,000 dwelling within the Florentine district. With the good economy, birth rates continued to rise, as did the number of children learning to read. The number of guilds and the annual Florentine food consumption, as recorded by Villani, serves as another indication of the thriving economy and commercial success of the time. With this success, Venice and Florence dynamically developed during this ‘Age of Republics’, significantly changing Italian society and culture, prior to the calamity of the Black Death.
--Sarah

The Crusades and Christian Love

A summary of Sir Steven Runciman's view of the crusades and Byzantium

There has been much debate about the nature of the crusades. As my fellow team members will summarise, Jonathan Riley- Smith sees the crusades as an act of love, however, on the other side of the debate, Sir Steven Runciman believes the crusades to be:

“nothing more than a long act of intolerance in the name of God.”

Urban II

Importantly, Runciman acknowledged the divisive nature of the crusades which he believed tore the Christian East and West further apart in the quest to rescue Byzantium from Turkish invasion. Moreover, despite a relatively negative perspective of the crusades, Runciman views Pope Urban II’s motives, which drove him to preach the Crusade at Clermont, to stem from a longing to help Eastern Christendom and to strengthen ties between the West and Byzantium. The Pope wished to send armies to aid the Christians of the East and once this was successful, to continue on to establish Christian rule in Palestine. Although he acknowledges the sincerity of the Pope's motives, Runciman believes that the pope is to be held responsible for the ensuing misunderstandings which undermined his initial ideas.

                                                                                                                               

In context of this first crusade, Sir Steven Runciman focuses on the reaction of Byzantium to the movement initiated by the Pope. That Pope Urban II wished to establish Christian rule in Palestine after aiding Byzantine speak of the differences between himself and Emperor Alexius I Comnenus. The emperor was focused on Anatolia and employed the tactic of keeping the Muslim princes at ends with each other, in order to discourage any sort of united effort against him. Urban's plan, however, had the potential to undermine this tactic and provoke a reaction which could be detrimental to Alexius' situation. The tenuous relationship between Byzantium and the West disintegrated rapidly as the first crusaders arrived and, affected subsequent crusades thereafter. Runciman cites that Byzantium was

 

“thus embarrassed by the appearance of the crusading armies and not wholly in sympathy with their aims”

In accepting the Pope's good intentions, Runciman blames instead the differences between the “sophisticated culture of Byzantium and the simple people of Europe” and suggests that the height of such division is to be found in the Fourth conquest of Constantinople in 1204.

--Charlotte

The Crusades and the Idea of Love Thy Neighbour
Jonathan Riley-Smith's article Crusading as an act of Love deals with two key issues. Firstly, the Christian love of God. Secondly, the Christian love of the neighbour. Focusing upon the latter, Riley-Smith asserts that in Crusading propoganda this love applied only to Christian neighbours (namely the Byzantine Christians being threatened by the Muslims). In his sermon at Clermont, Pope Urban II proclaimed that "it is charity to lay down lives for friends". The Knights Templar and the Hospitallers were seen as the epitome of this fraternal love as they were able to emulate the ultimate Christian warrior who could at once be a soldier and a monk. However, as Riley-Smith states, controversy arose when Pope Alexander III along with Hugh of St. Victor worried that both orders would be lead into sin due to the fact that war sprang from hatred and greed therefore rendering war and monasticism incompatible. This is in direct contrast with the propoganda of the Crusades, which emphasised Crusading violence as springing from fraternal love of neighbouring Christians. In conclusion, Riley-Smith details the one dimensional love of Crusading rhetoric and propoganda which is at odds with the Christian doctrine of loving ALL mankind as Christ instructed. Propoganda instead directed Crusaders to smite the enemy in honour of God rather than corresponding to the Christian notion of punishment as aid to teach sinners the Christian truths and thereby save their souls out of fraternal love instead of hatred and vengeance.
--Stacey S.

The Crusades an as Act of Love for God

In his article ‘Crusading as an Act of Love’ Jonathan Riley-Smith suggests that during the Medieval period crusading could be seen as an expression of love for God and for neighbour. How could a ‘love of God’ provide motivation for the crusades?

As we have seen throughout our study of Medieval Europe, the Church was the centre and authority of society. It is important to remember that medieval society was fixated on living a holy life in order to ensure a place in heaven – it was their main priority. Popes and bishops constantly affirmed this notion ensuring that society remained aware of their commitment to God and the Church. Jonathan Riley-Smith suggests that crusading was called on in ‘an act of love’. Many historians have debated the reasons for crusading so keep in mind that Riley-Smith’s opinion is just one of many.


Crusading:
Jesus and God were at the very centre of crusading. The word ‘crusade’ literally means ‘going to the cross’ and following Christ. Becoming a crusade was a personal choice to take up the cross, spread the word of God, save your Christian brothers and reclaim God’s rightful and Holy Land in the East. Crusading was therefore also a form of pilgrimage.


An act of ‘love for God’?
In becoming a crusade the Church advocated that one was fulfilling Jesus’ message in the Bible:

‘Whoever doth not carry his cross and come after me cannot be my disciple.’

(Luke xiv 27).

Popes such as Pope Urban II and later, Pope Innocent III used this notion to suggest that by denying yourself and becoming a crusader you were showing your gratitude for Jesus’ suffering. Pope Innocent III is quoted as saying:

‘Who would refuse to die for him, who made for us obedient unto death, a death indeed on the cross?’

Becoming a crusader was also motivated by the promise of ‘indulgences’, a concept initially instigated by Pope Urban II in September 1096. Pope Urban II suggested that crusading was the ultimate act of love for God and for Jesus, and would therefore ensure salvation in heaven. This, of course, was very important to medieval people.

Riley-Smith suggests that the way in which popes and bishops expressed crusading as a love of God was significant. He argues that they addressed their audiences ‘in terms which were real to them’ (36). For example, they likened the relationship and loyalty to God to those of lords and vassals, where Jesus was the Lord and the crusaders were the vassals, fulfilling their duty as His subjects and fighting for the recovery and defence of His rightful land.

However, the violence of the crusades goes against the Christian concept of tolerance. How do you think crusading for the love of God helped to justify this violence?

While Riley-Smith describes crusading as ‘an act of love’, other historians have almost the opposite opinion. Thomas Madden, for example, argues that love for God was only a cover for other intentions, and that the crusades was a ‘defensive war’ in direct response to the aggression of the Muslims. Similarly, Susanna Throop has written a book titled ‘Crusading as an Act of Vengeance.’
To what extent do you think it’s possible for all three descriptions above to be accurate motivations for crusading, or are they mutually exclusive?
-- Frances

Context helps understand the readings for week 10.
The first reading is from Geoffrey Villeharduin, a veteran of the Third Crusade who had spent four years a prisoner of the Muslims. Organisers of the Fourth Crusade chose him as ambassador to arrange sea transport. Addressing the Venetian doge Enrico Dandalo, he says the aim of the crusade is to reconquer Jerusalem, but secretly spoke of Cairo. The deal was done for boats to carry an army of about 36,000.

The story is taken up by Robert of Clari, a Piccardy knight in the Crusader army now in barracks on a Venetian island. Money worries threaten the crusade and relations between Venice and the crusaders, who can stump only about 60 per cent of the money owed. The impasse is broken when the doge does a deal, letting the crusaders have transport so long as they repay with booty from their first conquests. The doge enlists them first to help seize the Adriatic city of  Zara.

Villeharduin takes up the story again. After unfruitful diplomatic moves, the combined Venetian-Crusader force takes Zara and shares the spoils.

Robert de Clari then says the combined forces decide to winter at Zara. The Crusaders are mostly keen to get on with their sworn mission, but are deflected from it by the Venetians who have long had their eye on monopoly trade in the eastern Mediterranean at the expense of Genoa and Pisa. The Venetians get a pretext to take Constantinople in the shape of Alexis Angelus, pretender (with little pretence) to the Byzantine throne. “We now have sufficient excuse,” says the doge. The Crusaders are won over when Alexis offers huge sums of money to take them into another year of crusading and pledges to end the split between the Latin church and what we now call the Greek Orthodox church..

When Villeharduin appears again, representatives of the Venice-Crusade alliance are seeking without success to bring Constantinople to heel by diplomacy.

Robert de Clari says that not even direct negotiations between emperor and doge can solve the issue. The bishops side with the Venice-Crusader  force, extending the indulgence to all who join the coming battle.

Villeharduin rounds out the preparations for war with a top-level meeting on how the spoils would be divided.

The accounts of destruction, rape and pillage need no explanation. Niketa Choniates tells the story from the side of the vanquished and Gunther of Pairis, speaking for the conquerer, tells of plunder “which was theirs by right of conquest”. Choniates had been head of the Byzantine public service. In exile he wrote a 21-volume “History of the Times”, dealing largely with the third and fourth crusades. Gunther of Pairis (not Paris, but Pairis, a town near Basel) was a Cistercian monk, who was obviously fascinated by the wealth of plundered relics.
--Rod

St Francis of Assisi and the New Orders

Francis' life up until he converted to Christianity:
What sort of society was Francis Bernardone born into? Western Europe was a changing world. The main signs of this development were economically and demographically. Demographically, the population was increasing rapidly leading to built up areas and new villages. Economically, land was being cleared, grazing was introduced and towns became places of exchanging money.

What were his personality traits? –charming – irresponsible – selfish – wealthy – powerful - violent. Most of these traits changed once he converted to Christianity.

What caused Francis to Convert to Christianity? Francis joined the crusades and was captured by the Perugians. He was imprisoned for a year until he became too sick. This led him so seek religious consolation. One day, he entered the Church of St Damian. He felt a spiritual connection and heard the crucifix speak to him. He obeyed what the crucifix had said and decided to spend his life serving Jesus.
-- Leah

Franciscans and Francis and the natural world 
Supporting Francis’s idea of a divine, equal presence in all creatures and the rejection of the economic and social values of the time were the Franciscans. Alongside Francis’s charismatic and passionate personality, drawing followers in, was his appreciation and love for the natural world. Handling all animals and humans with compassion and humility, Francis had an incredible way of controlling undomesticated animals, healing and uniting with them. Francis went on to write “Canticle of the sun,” a piece of poetry that actualized his love for all creatures and nature around him. Here is a link to the full poem, http://conservation.catholic.org/prayers.htm, below a single verse to share:

“All praise be yours, my Lord, through Brothers Wind and Air,

And fair and stormy, all the weather's moods,

 By which you cherish all that you have made.

All praise be yours, my Lord, through Sister Water,

So useful, lowly, precious, and pure.”

– Canticle of the sun, Francis of Assisi

Through his contagious inspiring fervour that he passed onto his audience within every sermon, people were quick to join the order and share Francis dream of spreading the word of god through travel and living the ideal apostolic life.

The Franciscans were a mendicant order, that is, owning no property and acquired what they needed by working or accepting alms. Their main goals were to live a life of “holy poverty”, preaching the word of god wherever they go as well as to carry out the earthly imitation of Christ as portrayed in the Bible. This order was mainly directed at the laity, stressing to all that it was possible to live an evangelical life within an established church. The Franciscans were devoted to all aspects of the church, proving to be an aid to the Pope in reeling heretics back into the faith. After Francis gained followers, he wrote up a rule which provided a framework and structure for the Franciscans. Also known as friars, they were forbidden to have any money, allowed no personal possessions, only a single robe, and rather residing within the countryside, isolated form the world, to live amongst the people to be able to spread the message of god, penance and attending to the sick and poor.

Francis originally created the movement with no systematic organization; however, it eventually proved to be inefficient. In 1223, he wrote a second version of his rule, with this becoming the official and formal constitution of the Franciscans. The second version provided continuity and reaffirmation to living an apostolic life as well as the establishment of administration within the order. Francis died in 1226, and in 1245 the Pope became the owner of all buildings belonging to the order. Initially, the Franciscans didn’t believe in attaining an education, as it was a form of wealth in contrary to their belief in a life of poverty. However, from 1220 onwards, some friars changed their outlook on the matter, attending universities and receiving an education. Although some friars accepted the matter, many displayed disapproval stating the wrong in disregarding the original perspective authorized by Francis.
-- Cody

The Dominicans and Le Goff arguement about the impact of urban life upon Francis' religious life:
A. The Dominicans:
The Dominicans also known as "The Order of preachers" were one of two new religious orders and comprised of monks/friars who were mendicants which was founded by the Spanish priest, Saint Dominic (1170 – 1221). The Order emphasized education and learning, which closely mirrored traditional monastic establishments, however, the Dominicans were dedicated to the undertakings of pastoral mission. They denoted a lifestyle of owning no property, study and preaching. Their evangelical lifestyle demonstrated to the society that this lifestyle and acquisition to salvation in life was possible within the restraint of the Church. This idea, although similar to the Franciscan Order, is thought to have been an independent application of the idea of apostolic life. The Dominicans were involved in fortifying the Church as an Order to regain heretics and overwhelm heresy. Together with the Franciscan Order, the Dominicans served to increase the Christian spirit, particularly through personal example, as well as teaching and preaching. This new theology of secular life, greatly appealed to a majority in the late medieval society. Saint Dominic sought papal authorization in 1215, and was granted this approval in 1216 from Pope Honorius; however the Order was an official branch of the Augustinian canons. The Dominicans were capable of determining their own leaders, through the abolition of an established hierarchy. Did Saint Dominican purposely target a part of society that required organization, which ultimately led to his and the Dominican's Order's success?

B. Le Goff on the impact of urbanization on Francis' religious life:
Jacques Le Goff suggests that Francis of Assisi (1181/1182-1226) was a part of a new society which comprised of the development of feudalism to monarchianism and the imposition of courtly values on the ruling culture resulting from the influence of dominant lay classes, the knights and aristocracy. Le Goff contends that Francis personally experienced the influence of the new culture of chivalry, through his devotion to poverty and courteous ramifications. In the new society, based largely on economic development, Francis clearly had the aspiration to take on poverty and reject both social and economic values present within the aristocratic society. From his experience of life in Assisi, Francis was determined to enlighten the town to accept poverty, rather than focus on wealth and money. Francis worked in the towns for his daily sustenance, and also proceeded to hermit's retreat, moving between an apostolate to the entire of humanity and regeneration through and in confinement. Ultimately, Francis demonstrated a unique path and pilgrimage to the new society based on urbanization and money. Did the rate of urbanization fundamentally aid Francis in establishing his Franciscan Order?
-- Laura

Saint Clare and the Life of Francisican Women
Clare de Offreduccio de Favarone was Saint Francis’ first female convert (later known as Saint Clare). She was a problem for the brothers at first, as a woman could hardly trample around the countryside living day by day in strict poverty with a group of men; it was indecent by social standards. Thus she, with the aid of Saint Francis, founded the convent San Damiano in Assisi. And for those of you who are curious as to what the place looked like, I have added a link to a short video displaying the architecture of the place.

Both Francisican men and women were expected to live in strict poverty, and even though Clare and her sisters had a roof over their heads they still maintained a life of poverty and mutual support. When Saint Francis died it became difficult for the sisters to maintain this lifestyle as the popes (Gregory IX and later Innocent IV) insisted that they adapt to more monastic norms.
-- Melanie

The foundation of the Dominican order

The Dominican order was founded by Spanish priest entitled Dominic de Guzman (1170-1221). This new order placed heavy emphasis on education and learning. Slocum suggests that the purpose of this order was an attempt to control and organise Cathar heresy. Dominic contained a strong bond with Diego of Osma who was his Bishop. Through this friendship enabled them to join forces with the Cistercians to combat heresy with the approach by encouraging practitioners to emulate apostolic life.  Slocum disagrees with other scholars who suggest that Dominic borrowed his ideas concerning absolute poverty from the Franciscans. Slocum points out that Dominic and Diego undertook the apostolic life before they would have received knowledge of Francis and followers. 

Dominic continued his works during the years of the Albigensian Crusade. At this time he established in Toulouse which became the centre of his preaching duties.

1215 – Dominic travelled to Rome to ask the Pope for authorization for his new order.

1216 – Permission was granted by Pope Honorius III, which recognized the existence of Dominic’s order, as well as confirming his headquarters in Toulouse

1217 – Instructions were given by Dominic to his associates to leave their headquarters in Toulouse and travel throughout Europe. Places preachers were sent to include Paris, Spain and Bologna. A major priority of these missions, thought by Slocum was to infiltrate the finest intellectual enters present in Europe at the time. These were primarily universities, which helped the order to obtain top recruits

1228 – An assembly was held, the first of its kind, which was to discuss and make decisions on internal affairs. This was to become an annual meeting entitled a “General Chapter”. A major accomplishment of this assembly was to usher in a new constitution, based on the monastic tradition. A unique aspect of Dominic’s rule was this constitution, which ensured that every official in every level of the hierarchy system was elected, and were made responsible under their subordinates for the actions of their offices.  Under this system contained different units. A Priory of convent was a basic unit with a prior at its head. The prior was elected by other members of the establishment.  The provincial chapter is another unit, which was large in size and was assigned to discuss the actions of business. Its members were derived from the different province’s in which the order was present. The major unit was called the General chapter, which met annually. The General chapter comprised of an elected master general and one representative elected by the chapter of each province.

--Louise

Clarification

Clarification I:
There are no classes on campus for ATS1316 in week 8. Your posts on the Crusades and Crusade Historians post, below, constitute your 'virtual tutorial' for this week.

Clarification II:
Blogs by presenters in week 9 will go live on Wednesday. Everyone needs to read and comment on these, even if they are not presenting.

Clarification III:
For presenters in weeks 9-11:

Topic	St Francis (wk 9)	Crusades (wk 10)	Black Death (wk 11)
Blog Post to Kathleen	5pm Tue. 24th April	5pm Tue. 1st May	5pm Tue. 8th May
Presentation	Mon. 30th April	Mon. 7th May	Mon. 14th May
Essay Due	Fri. 11 May	Fri. 18 May	Fri. 25 May

Important Announcement

Unfortunately the audio of the week 7 lectures have not been recorded. The slides are available, however, on both MULO and Blackboard. I am very sorry for the inconvenience, but sometimes technology does fail. I know that some of you have clashes and need to rely on the recordings. I would urge, however, those of you who can attend the lectures to do so, because that is the only absolutely guaranteed way that you have of hearing the material
Cheers, Clare

Crusades and Crusade Historians

 [Edit: spelling of Tyerman corrected - thanks Jonathan!]

Truce between Christians and Saracens.

Matthew Paris, Chronica Maiora, Parker MS 16II, f.139v.

In lectures during week 7 Clare raised the issue of thinking about where historians are coming from when they write. I'd like us to try and incorporate this into our discussions in this week's virtual tutorial. I've provided some links that give you other people's perspectives on Christopher Tyerman, author of the chapter on the Meaning of the Crusades, and his work. There are reviews of one of his recent books by Jonathan Philips - another well-known historian of the Crusades - and Dame Janet (a.k.a. 'Jinty') Nelson, a prominent early medievalist. I've also given you a link to an interview with Dr Tyreman himself. If you can, I recommend reading through these after you've looked at Tyerman's chapter. Address the questions in the reading pack, but also consider whether Tyerman's view seems to represent a consensus; and how his views differ from or relate to those of others who have written and thought about the Crusades.





Urban II preaching at Clermont


• Review of God's War by Jonathan Phillips in The Telegraph, September 2006.
• Review of God's War by J.L. Nelson in the London Review of Books, 2007.
• Interview with Christopher Tyerman about his book God's War.

In this interview, Tyerman talks about how it is misleading and ahistorical to draw direct connections between modern wars in the Middle East and the medieval crusading movement. I agree with him on this point, and it brings me to a general matter I forgot to mention in class, which is: while modern parallels and experiences can be useful tools for helping us think about the past, we should never confuse them with historical argument itself, which always has to be based in the evidence and context of the period. I'm sure you knew this - but especially following our discussions about ANZAC cove and Canterbury it seemed a good time to remind ourselves of this point...



Urban II preaching the crusade



But back to the Crusades! The Institute for Historical Research in London runs a monthly seminar about the Crusades, so clearly there's no shortage of opinion and debate on the topic.



The same was true at the time of the very first crusade. As Megan told us a couple of weeks back, pope Urban's sermon was recorded in different versions by a range of observers. Does applying similar principles of interpretation to these reports help you think about how and why they differ? Where were these medieval writers coming from, do you think? Why were they writing? Who was in their assumed audience?
Post your thoughts and responses to these readings below by Monday evening. Then we'll be moving on to St Francis and Co.!

Women's Roles

What are the views of women that are implied in the bible and how did this influence their role in Medieval society?

During the Medieval Period the Bible was the ultimate 'how to live a good life' guide.  But it is important to remember that the majority of society could not read or write.  The bible stories were preached through Masses and these Masses were dominated by men (priests, bishops etc).  It was mostly men that interpreted the bible, men who extracted the message and then men who passed this message on to the general population.  Should this influence our own interpretation of medieval religious primary sources? 

Biblical characters were crucial role models for women in medieval society.  There appears to be four types of women during this period; Virgins, Mothers, Nuns and Sinners.  They can be clearly seen through stories of women in the bible. 

Eve came under much criticism during this time, for it was she who convinced Adam to eat the fruit on the forbidden tree. She created original sin and was the first sinner. Death came through Eve. It is interesting to note that she is blamed for Adam's actions... 

Painting of Joan of Arc from c1450-1500

Held in the Centre Historique des Archives Nationales, Paris.

From: www.hisrtoymedren.about.com

Virgins in Medieval Society were under the protection of their fathers and brothers,
and considered the safeguards of purity. Medieval Society adored Mother Mary, for she epitomised all purity and sinlessness. Both a virgin and a mother, she gave hope and restored beauty to the world. Devoted to God and her son Jesus, she was the ultimate role  model for medieval women as homemakers. Life was restored through Mary.

Mary Magdalene brought hope to women in the medieval times. She was a prostitute and would have been regarded as an outcast. She was a sinner who sought forgiveness from Jesus. He forgave her and she followed Him and spread the word of God.

Saint Scholastica devoted her life to God as a Nun. The sister of Saint Benedict of Nursia, she had a special relationship with God and he listened to her prayers. She lived a good life according to God's teachings.

Are these the only types of women in Medieval Society? How does the Image of Joan of Arc challenge this idea?  

--Michelle

Marriage, Status and Alliance

Marriage is one of the ways in which historians are able to gain knowledge on the role of women and what rights they have in late medieval Europe. In this weeks readings we see how marriages in the late medieval Europe were formed to create alliances, bring a truce and create peace. Because of this the women’s roles went beyond just being a good wife but to uphold the alliance between the two families. The exchange of marriage during the 13^th and 15^th century was very important in society as it ended “prolonged vendettas” and “ancient hatreds” as well as process of rivalry at times of open warfare.  However, women in these types of marriages moved in two directions: either upward and became higher on the social scale than her own or down ward. Usually as the reading explains they would go downwards as fathers would chose women who had a higher status, this would cause problems for the women as they felt socially degraded because they were married to some one of inferior blood and rank.

Do you think that these marriages still exits today?

King Henry I of France sending a bishop, and his marriage to Anne of Kiev. An example of the type of marriage explained above, as king Henry married Anne of Kiev who was from a far off principality.

 --Anna

Women as Wives

Although some chose to follow a religious life, and others refrained for personal or economic reasons, most women in the Middle Ages married. Although it became a Christian sacrament, marriage was viewed as being an inferior state to virginity; St Paul wrote that ‘It is better to marry than to burn with passion’ (1 Corinthians 7:9). The below image is a miniature from a 12^th century German manuscript called Der Jungfrauspiegel. It shows the benefits for three types of women: virgins, married women, and widows. Do you think you could tell which group belongs to which line of the image?

llustration: Women Harvesting, Der Jungfrauenspiegel, Rheinisches Landesmuseum, Bonn, 1310. Wikimedia Commons

A literary text from this time, Geoffrey Chaucer’s The Canterbury Tales, will be used in the presentation on Monday, and you will find it useful to read the text itself (two tales in translation, links provided below). For those unfamiliar with the work, a group of pilgrims is travelling to Canterbury Cathedral to visit the shrine of St Thomas Beckett. Between the travellers arises a story-telling contest with the winner awarded a meal. Two of the tales that reflect views of wives are the Clerk’s tale, which tells the story of Griselda, a virtuous wife who faces cruel tests by her husband (http://www.umm.maine.edu/faculty/necastro/chaucer/translation/ct/10clt.html).  The other story is the Wife of Bath. Her prologue is almost twice as long as her story, both of which can be found here: http://www.umm.maine.edu/faculty/necastro/chaucer/translation/ct/07wbt.html. Her tale is about a knight who rapes a woman, and is given 366 days to find the answer to the question of what women really want, or else be condemned to death. To prepare for Monday’s tutorial, give some thought as to how you think the answer to the knight’s question compares with the second set reading (pages 305 to 308), especially when women were expected to submit to their husbands. There should be a chance for a group discussion on this, so please come prepared to contribute.

--Catherine